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Abstract
Background: The widespread use of personal earphones and AirPods as audio devices has increased significantly, particularly among university students. Thus, the concerns about their potential role in carrying microbial contaminants have increased. When the students who share these devices can allow growth of pathogenic microorganisms, particularly when basic hygiene is neglected.
Materials and Methods: About 60 Earphones were gathered from students at Al-Qadisiyah University for both male and female participants. Sterile swabs were used to collect samples from the inner and outer surfaces of the devices. A questionnaire on hygiene practices and sharing habits was performed by participants. The isolates and detection of Staphylococcus aureus of methicillin resistance were confirmed using PCR targeting the nuc and mecA genes as molecular confirmation.
Results: The contamination with microorganisms was distinguished in 93.3% of the samples. S. aureus was the most common isolate (68.3%), also with methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) found in 8.3% of samples, followed by Pseudomonas aeruginosa (30%), Escherichia coli (25%), and Candida albicans (20%). While mixed growth of bacterial and fungal was present in 28.3% of devices. The identity of Staphylococcus aureus isolates and the presence of methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) were confirmed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR).
Conclusion: Earphones that are regularly used by students can lead to opportunistic pathogens. For this reason, routine cleaning and proper hygiene practices may reduce microbial contamination and minimize potential health risks.
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Copyright (c) 2026 Amjed Hassan Sahib (Author)
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
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References
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References
GBD 2016 Traumatic Brain Injury and Spinal Cord Injury Collaborators. Global, regional, and national burden of traumatic brain injury and spinal cord injury, 1990–2016. Lancet Neurol. 2019;18(1):56–87. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(18)30415-0
Dewan MC, Rattani A, Gupta S, et al. Estimating the global incidence of traumatic brain injury. J Neurosurg. 2018;130(4):1080–1097. https://doi.org/10.3171/2017.10.JNS17352
Lazaridis C, Robertson CS. Regional variations in traumatic brain injury epidemiology and care. Neurosurg Focus. 2022;52(1):E2. https://doi.org/10.3171/2021.10.FOCUS21528
Cooper DJ, Rosenfeld JV, Murray L, et al. Decompressive craniectomy in diffuse traumatic brain injury. N Engl J Med. 2011;364(16):1493–1502. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1102077
Hutchinson PJ, Kolias AG, Timofeev IS, et al. Trial of decompressive craniectomy for traumatic intracranial hypertension. N Engl J Med. 2016;375(12):1119–1130. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1605215
Kolias AG, Adams H, Timofeev IS, et al. Evaluation of outcomes among patients with traumatic intracranial hypertension treated with decompressive craniectomy vs standard medical care at 24 months. JAMA Neurol. 2022;79(7):664–671. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamaneurol.2022.1070
Carney N, Totten AM, O'Reilly C, et al. Guidelines for the management of severe traumatic brain injury, fourth edition. Neurosurgery. 2017;80(1):6–15. https://doi.org/10.1227/NEU.0000000000001432
Steyerberg EW, Mushkudiani N, Perel P, et al. Predicting outcome after traumatic brain injury: development and international validation of prognostic scores. PLoS Med. 2008;5(8):e165. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.0050165
MRC CRASH Trial Collaborators, Perel P, Arango M, et al. Predicting outcome after traumatic brain injury: practical prognostic models based on large cohort of international patients. BMJ. 2008;336(7641):425–429. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.39461.643438.25
Rubiano AM, Carney N, Chesnut R, Puyana JC. Global neurotrauma research challenges and opportunities. Nature. 2015;527(7578):S193–S197. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature16035
Collins GS, Reitsma JB, Altman DG, Moons KGM. Transparent reporting of a multivariable prediction model (TRIPOD): the TRIPOD statement. BMJ. 2015;350:g7594. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.g7594
von Elm E, Altman DG, Egger M, et al. The STROBE statement: guidelines for reporting observational studies. Lancet. 2007;370(9596):1453–1457. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61602-X
Kolias AG, Kirkpatrick PJ, Hutchinson PJ. Decompressive craniectomy: past, present and future. Nat Rev Neurol. 2013;9(7):405–415. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrneurol.2013.106
Wilson JT, Pettigrew LE, Teasdale GM. Structured interviews for the Glasgow Outcome Scale and the extended Glasgow Outcome Scale. J Neurotrauma. 1998;15(8):573–585. https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.1998.15.573
DeLong ER, DeLong DM, Clarke-Pearson DL. Comparing the areas under two or more correlated receiver operating characteristic curves. Biometrics. 1988;44(3):837–845. https://doi.org/10.2307/2531595
Saoud KM, El-Ghandour NMF, Hassan TA, Wassef MR. Outcome and prognostic factors of decompressive craniectomy for traumatic brain injury. Egypt J Neurosurg. 2023;38(1):14. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41984-023-00204-1
Honeybul S, Ho KM. Predicting long-term neurological outcomes after severe traumatic brain injury requiring decompressive craniectomy. Injury. 2016;47(9):1886–1892. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.injury.2016.04.017
Mishra RK, Singh GP, Bithal PK, Chouhan RS, Bindra A. Decompressive craniectomy in traumatic brain injury: a single-institutional Indian experience. World Neurosurg. 2022;162:e377–e387. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wneu.2022.02.144
Roozenbeek B, Lingsma HF, Lecky FE, et al. The added value of ancillary tests in the prediction of outcome after traumatic brain injury. J Neurotrauma. 2012;29(9):1770–1778. https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2011.2106
Spaite DW, Hu C, Bobrow BJ, et al. Mortality and prehospital blood pressure in patients with major traumatic brain injury. JAMA Surg. 2017;152(4):360–368. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamasurg.2016.4686
Wang R, He M, Ou X, Xie X, Kang Y. The neutrophil to lymphocyte ratio as a prognostic biomarker in traumatic brain injury. Brain Inj. 2023;37(8):710–719. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699052.2023.2206067
Sahuquillo J, Dennis JA. Decompressive craniectomy for the treatment of high intracranial pressure in closed traumatic brain injury. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2019;12(12):CD003983. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD003983.pub3
Hawryluk GW, Aguilera S, Buki A, et al. A management algorithm for patients with intracranial pressure monitoring: the SIBICC consensus. Intensive Care Med. 2019;45(12):1783–1794. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00134-019-05805-9
Maas AIR, Hukkelhoven CW, Marshall LF, Steyerberg EW. Prediction of outcome in traumatic brain injury with computed tomographic characteristics. Neurosurgery. 2005;57(6):1173–1182. https://doi.org/10.1227/01.NEU.0000186013.63046.6B.